 

Connecting Indigenous 
Knowledges to the classroom 

 

 

Experiment Procedure 

Fire-starting topic 

Physical sciences 

Teacher notes (Year 8) 

 

Photograph showing a close-up of a hand lighting a small fire using dry twigs and bark. Flames are visible, highlighting the process of starting a fire with natural materials in an outdoor context. 



Acknowledgement of Country 

CSIRO acknowledges the Traditional Owners of the lands, seas and waters of the area that we 
live and work on across Australia. We acknowledge all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 
peoples and their continuing connection to their culture and pay our respects to Elders past 
and present. CSIRO is committed to reconciliation and recognises that Aboriginal and Torres 
Strait Islander peoples have made contributions to all aspects of Australian life including 
culture, economy and science. 

Artwork 

‘Meeting on Country, Shifting Sands’ 
by Aunty Sandra Angus 
working with Saltwater People 
© 2026. 

Aunty Sandra Angus is an 
acknowledged Elder and well 
respected Aboriginal leader in her 
community. She proudly identifies as 
an Australian ‘Saltwater Murri’ with 
ancestral roots that extend to the 
Wiradjuri and Wongaibon people in 
NSW, the Ngarrindjeri people in SA 
and the Gunggari and Jaggera people 
in QLD. 

‘Meeting on Country, Shifting Sands’ by Aunty Sandra Angus working with Saltwater People © 2026. 


 


Contents 

Contents ............................................................................................................................. 3 
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 4 
Experiment procedure .................................................................................................................. 7 
Take it further ........................................................................................................................... 11 



 

Introduction 

In this experiment, students explore how Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Peoples use 
traditional fire-starting methods to understand energy and energy transformation. For thousands 
of years, fire has been a deeply connected practice linking culture, Country, and community. It is 
central to spiritual connections to Country and is used in ceremonies and cultural traditions. Fire 
has also been carefully used to care for Country through controlled burning to help maintain 
healthy ecosystems, protect sacred sites, and reduce the risk of bushfires. In daily life, fire has 
supported cooking, warmth, hunting, and communication through smoke signals. 

These fire-starting practices are based on deep ecological knowledge. Knowledge on how to select 
suitable materials for drill sticks, hearth boards, saws and tinder is important to successfully 
starting a fire, as is understanding how to transform mechanical energy into heat energy using 
friction. All methods rely on dry wood to create friction and force to transform kinetic energy into 
heat energy to ignite fire. Common tinder includes dry grass, eucalyptus leaves, coconut fibre, 
bark and dried animal dung. 

This experiment focuses on two common methods explored in one lesson between two groups: 
the hand drill and the fire saw. Other methods, such as the fire plough and percussion techniques, 
are used in parts of north-eastern Western Australia and are explored in the Fire-starting context 
PowerPoint. 

 

Note: In a classroom setting, students will not be able to create an actual fire using these 
methods. Instead, they should aim to observe signs of heat energy transfer, such as visible 
smoke, a burning smell, or slight browning/charring of the wood. 


 

Hand drill 

An illustration of two hands rubbing and twisting a drill stick into a wooden hearth.
The hand drill is the most widely used fire-starting 
technique across Australia and the Torres Strait 
Islands. It involves twirling a straight wooden drill stick 
between the hands in a socket carved into a hearth 
board. Friction produces heat and fine wood dust, 
which falls through a notch onto tinder and forms a 
smouldering ember. The method can be done by one 
person but is less strenuous when shared by two. 

Figure 1 Hand drill method 
A harder wood is used for the drill stick and a softer 
wood for the hearth board. The hearth must not be too soft or rotten, as it will crumble and fail to 
create enough friction. Wood with a pith core (a soft white centre) usually works well. Harder 
woods require much more energy to produce the hot sawdust needed for ignition. Drill sticks must 
be straight and about 30–170 cm long, and approximately 1 cm in diameter. 

Important points to note with the hand drill method: 

• Rub both hands together while exerting downward pressure so the drill stick rotates 
into the hearth board. 
• Rolling the stick across the whole palm is more effective than short movements. 
• Begin with light downward pressure as the sticks warm up, then increase the pressure 
when smoke begins to appear, being careful to maintain the vertical position of the drill 
stick. 
• Recommended: An electric drill fitted with a short 50-75 mm stick (as the drill piece) 
can be slowly spun to simulate hand twirling. Safety glasses must be worn for this 
method. This can help avoid arm and hand strain. 


 


Fire saw 

An illustration of two hands holding a wooden saw stick, dragging it over notches in a wooden hearth.
The fire saw was the second most common 
technique, particularly in central Australia, 
north-western coastal regions and parts of 
Victoria. It involves rubbing the sharp edge of a 
hard wooden object (known as a “saw stick”) 
back and forth across a softer wooden base 
(known as “hearth stick”) placed over tinder. 
The friction produces hot wood dust that 
smoulders and ignites the tinder. 

Figure 2 Fire saw method 
This method is efficient, requires minimal preparation, and can be done by one or two people. Fire 
saws are made from rough pieces of wood, avoiding the need for precise shaping, while the base 
is made from softer wood. 

A key advantage is its versatility. Everyday tools such as spear throwers, boomerangs, and wooden 
dishes could also be used as fire saws, reducing the need to carry extra materials. For example, a 
concave spear thrower could be used for hunting, fire-making, cutting, carrying, and making 
music. 

Important points to note with the fire saw method: 

• Get students to wear gloves to avoid blisters. Gloves with the grip on the inside are 
ideal so that they can still hold onto the wood. 


To see the full list of materials, refer to the Fire-starting equipment list and hazard management 
document. 

 

Safety Note: This investigation involves friction-generated heat, fire, sawdust and optional 
use of an electric drill to simulate fire-starting techniques. 

 


 

Experiment procedure 

Which method produces smoke the quickest: the hand drill 
or the fire saw? 

 

PART A – Hand drill 

Equipment 

For each group: 

• Base plate (dressed pine), 140 mm x 19 
mm x 200 mm, with two adjacent 6 mm 
holes positioned 20 mm from the top 
edge and 20 mm from the side edge at 
one end. 
• Drill stick: Eucalyptus grandis – flooded 
gum (dowel) 800 mm in length and 12 
mm in diameter. Taper the end 
manually with sandpaper to smooth the 
edge. 
• Hearth board (Tasmanian Oak), 30 mm x 
12 mm x 1200 mm, with 13 mm deep 
starter holes/notches across the hearth 
board. The board must also have drill 
holes that align with the base plate (two 
adjacent 6 mm holes positioned 10 mm 
from the top edge and 10 mm from the 
side edge at one end). 
• 2 x 80 mm metal bolt and wing nut (for 
attaching hearth board to base plate) 
• G-clamp 
• Timer (stopwatch) 
• Safety glasses 
• Optional – Temperature measurement 
device. 
• Optional – Electric hand drill (see 
important notes). 


 

For each student, copies of: 

• Fire starting experiment procedure – 
Student 
• Fire-starting experiment planner 
• Additional fire-starting experiment 
PowerPoint. 


Safety 

• Do not touch the materials, as they 
could be hot. The heat produced can 
cause burns. 
• Wear safety glasses. Sawdust could fly 
into your eyes. 
• Keep your working area clean. 
Flammable materials can catch on fire. 
• Have a fire blanket, fire extinguisher or 
fire bucket on hand. 



Equipment set-up 

 

Illustration showing a hands-on demonstration of a fire-starting technique using a wooden spindle and fireboard secured with a blue clamp. Arrows indicate rotational movement of the spindle, emphasizing friction generation to create fire.
Figure 3 Set-up for hand drill experiment 
Method 

1. Secure the hearth board to the base 
plate using the bolt and wing nuts, 
ensuring it is firmly fastened. 
2. Use the G-clamp to attach the base 
plate to a workbench. Position the base 
plate so that the hearth board is close to 
the edge of the bench. Tighten the 
clamp securely to hold the hearth board 
and base plate steady. It should not 
move. 
3. Position the drill stick vertically in the 
notch of the hearth board. 
4. Have the timer ready to start when at 
the beginning of step 5. 
5. Place both hands at the top of the stick 
and use a quick back-and-forth motion 
moving the hands down the stick while 
exerting some downward pressure on 
stick. 
6. When the hands reach the bottom of 
the stick, reposition them to the top and 
continue spinning (or change operators 
if there are two people). 
7. Continue using the hand drill until you 
observe clear signs of ignition such as 
visible smoke or a distinct burning smell. 
Stop the timer when you notice this. The 
wood may have started to darken or char. 
8. Record observations and timing in Part A of 
the Experiment planner. 
9. Repeat steps 3 – 8 at least two more times, 
making sure to make observations as you 
go. 


PART B – Fire saw 

Equipment 

For each group: 

• Base plate (dressed pine) 140 mm x 19 
mm x 200 mm. With two adjacent 6 
mm holes positioned 20 mm from the 
top edge and 20 mm from the side 
edge at one end. 
• Hearth stick (Tasmanian Oak), 30 mm x 
12 mm x 1200 mm, with 13 mm deep 
starter holes/notches across the 
hearth. Board needs to have drill holes 
that align with the base plate (two 
adjacent 6 mm holes positioned 10 
mm from the top edge and 10 mm 
from the side edge at one end). 
• Saw stick (Eucalyptus grandis – flooded 
gum), 400 mm in length and 6x6 mm in 
width. 
• 2 x 80 mm metal bolt and wing nut (for 
attaching hearth board to base plate) 
• G-clamp 
• 2 pairs of gloves (gardening type) 
• Safety glasses 
• Timer (stopwatch) 
• Optional – Temperature measurement 
device. 



Safety 

• Do not touch the materials, as could be 
hot. The heat produced can cause 
burns. 
• Wear safety glasses. Sawdust could fly 
into your eyes. 
• Keep your working area clean. 
Flammable materials can catch on fire. 
• Have a fire blanket, fire extinguisher or 
fire bucket on hand. 


Equipment set-up 

 

Illustration showing a woodworking setup with a clamp securing a piece of wood to a workbench. A gloved hand is sliding a wooden guide along the workbench, indicated by a double-headed arrow, demonstrating how to adjust or position the guide for cutting or measuring.
Figure 4 Set-up for fire saw experiment 
Method 

1. Secure the hearth stick to the base 
plate using the bolt and wing nuts, 
ensuring it is firmly fastened. 
2. Use the G-clamp to attach the base 
plate to a workbench. Position it so 
that the hearth stick is close to the 
edge of the bench. Tighten the clamp 
securely to hold the hearth stick and 
base plate steady. It should not move. 
3. Position the saw stick across the top of 
the hearth stick. 
4. Have the timer ready to start at the 
beginning of step 5. 
5. Wearing gloves, place one hand on 
each end of the stick (or one person on 
each side if there are two operators) 
and use a back-and-forth sawing 
motion, exerting downward pressure 
on the stick. Start slowly, then 
gradually increase pace and pressure. 
This creates a groove in the hearth 
where the dust will collect and heat 
up. 
6. Continue using the fire saw until you 
observe clear signs of ignition such as 
visible smoke or a distinct burning 
smell. Stop the timer when you notice 
this. The wood may have started to 
darken or char. 
7. Record observations and timing in Part 
B of the Experiment planner. 
8. Repeat steps 3–7 at least two more 
times. 


 

Results 

Students are to record their observations and time measurements in the Experiment planner. 

Analyse the results 

Students use their data and observations to determine which fire-starting method was more 
efficient in producing smoke. They record their analysis in the Experiment planner. 

Teacher prompts 

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contexts and knowledges: 


• How is fire used by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Peoples? Think about Country, 
Culture, and community. 
• What forms of energy were involved in operating the hand drill, and how were these forms 
transferred or transformed during the activity? 
• What does this investigation highlight about Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander 
Peoples’ understanding of energy transfer and transformation? 
• How is this knowledge applied? 
• Why is understanding energy transfer important when learning about traditional fire-
starting techniques used by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander peoples? 


 

Working scientifically: 

• Why are there different methods? 
• Which method produced smoke the fastest? 
• What is common between the two methods? 
• What are the basic materials needed to start a fire? 
• Why does the wood need to be dry? 
• Where did the heat/smoke come from? 
• What did your group change and measure? 
• What will your group control to ensure a fair test? 
• What data is going to be collected? 
• How is the data going to be recorded? 
• What forms of energy were used in the fire-making process? 


 


 

Take it further 

Guided investigation 

Increase student autonomy and critical thinking in this activity by providing students with the 
experiment question only. Students brainstorm their own method of investigation, actively 
considering whether their method will produce fair results. 

Suggestions include: 

1. Investigating which is the best combination of wood for starting a fire. 
• Use different wood combinations (hard/hard, hard/soft, soft/hard, soft/soft). Ideally, 
use local wood. 
• If using the hand drill method, an electric drill may be used to rotate the drill stick to 
improve consistency and reduce blisters. 
2. Investigating which tinder is most effective for catching fire. 
• Use different tinder materials (locally sourced is ideal) with an ignition source such as a 
smouldering coal or piece of wood. Avoid using a match or lighter to ensure a fair 
comparison of flammability. 
• Tinder options include dry grass, coconut fibre, dry leaves from Eucalyptus spp. 
(sometimes pounded into a powder), dry head of the flower stalk of a grass tree 
(Xanthorrhoea spp.) and dried kangaroo dung. 


Refer to ‘Optional: Additional materials’ section in the Fire-starting equipment list and hazard 
management document. 

Local Indigenous Knowledge 

The above experiments/activities ideally start with cultural Knowledge taught by a local 
Indigenous Knowledge Holder. Schools and Indigenous community members should take the 
time to learn from each other and plan activities together. Learning on Country and the local 
Indigenous language should be used whenever possible in the learning program. When 
connecting with a Knowledge Holder, it is important to listen actively to what they say and 
demonstrate respect for and value for their Knowledge systems and traditions. 


Knowledge Holder links 

• Find Indigenous organisations such as Indigenous Ranger programs or cultural land 
management organisations that use fire to manage Country. Ask local Knowledge 
Holders if they will share their knowledge of fire with students. 
• What local wood is best used to start a fire? 
• What fire-starting technique do they use? 
• Which material/s make the best tinder? 
• How is fire transported as groups of people move across their traditional lands? 


Assessment 

Evidence that can assist teachers in making professional judgements about a student’s progress 
and achievement of curriculum outcomes can be gathered in a variety of ways during the unit, 
including: 

• Teacher-student discussions 
• Observing student participation in the experiment 
• Gathering student work samples including oral, written and multimedia 
• Assessing students’ application and use of knowledge and skills 
• Strategic questioning 


In the experiments, students may be assessed on their ability to: 

• Identify questions and problems that can be scientifically investigated 
• Plan and conduct safe investigations 
• Identify variables to be changed, controlled and measured 
• Collect and record data, including appropriate use of digital technologies 
• Analyse data and information 
• Identify relationships and draw conclusions 
• Apply scientific understanding. 



 

 

 

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